Everything you do is language.

Grammatical Gender of Hindi and Russian Languages

1Chandan Suman , 2Shekhar Suman

1Banaras Hindu University, Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of arts, Varanasi.

2Indira Gandhi National Open University, Delhi

1dr.chandansuman@gmail.com, 2shekhar@ignou.ac.in

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Abstract:

Languages' grammatical gender systems play an important role in shaping linguistic structure and communication. This comparative study investigates the gender systems of Hindi and Russian, examining their differences, similarities, and cultural implications. The research takes a multidimensional approach that includes linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural perspectives. This study reveals the intricate interplay between language and culture through a thorough analysis of gender categories, assignment rules, and semantic considerations. The findings help us understand gender systems as both linguistic phenomena and cultural value reflections.

Keywords: grammatical gender, Hindi, Russian, comparative analysis, language and culture

 

1. Introduction

Language is an amazing medium for human societies to express their thoughts, culture, and identity. Grammatical gender—a linguistic phenomenon that categorises nouns into distinct classes, often tied to their inherent or perceived attributes—is a central feature of language that reveals its complexity and diversity. Grammatical gender research provides an examination into how languages organise and represent the world around us, while also reflecting cultural aspects and cognitive processes.  The current investigation delves into the intricate complexities of grammatical gender within two distinct linguistic frameworks: Hindi and Russian.

Grammatical gender has long caught the interest of linguists and researchers due to its complexities. To assign gender to nouns, languages use a variety of strategies, including phonological characteristics, semantic attributes, and historical influences. While some languages have only two genders for nouns, others may have complex systems involving three or more. The grammatical gender system interacts with various aspects of linguistic structure, such as morphology, syntax, and agreement patterns.

The Indo-Aryan and Slavic language families, respectively, provide distinct examples of how grammatical gender manifests and functions across diverse linguistic landscapes. The contrast between these two languages provides a fascinating opportunity for cross-linguistic analysis, shedding light on the universals and peculiarities of grammatical gender systems. This study aims to provide additional understanding into how languages encode and transmit cultural concepts and cognitive categorizations by investigating gender assignment strategies, agreement patterns, and semantic associations in Hindi and Russian.

The following are the study's primary objectives: To conduct a comprehensive comparative analysis of the grammatical gender systems in Hindi and Russian, elucidating shared and unique features; to investigate the methods by which gender is assigned to nouns in both languages, taking into account factors such as phonological, semantic, and cultural associations; to investigate the patterns of gender agreement within sentences, examining how nouns, adjectives, and verbs interact to create cohesive language structures; and to conduct a comprehensive comparative analysis of the grammatical gender systems in Hindi

This study's significance extends beyond linguistic analysis to cultural understanding and language education. We hope to improve our understanding of how language reflects and shapes cultural perceptions of gender, societal roles, and cognitive categorizations by examining grammatical gender in Hindi and Russian. Furthermore, the findings of the study can be used to advise language educators' pedagogical approaches, resulting in more effective language teaching and learning strategies.

This study contributes to the larger exploration of linguistic diversity, cross-linguistic typology, and the intricate interplay between language, culture, and cognition through the lens of grammatical gender. As we travel through the worlds of Hindi and Russian, we discover not only the linguistic fabric that connects them, but also the intricate threads that weave together human expression and comprehension.

2. Theoretical Framework

Overview of Grammatical Gender

Grammatical gender is a linguistic phenomenon that involves classifying nouns, pronouns, and other related elements based on specific characteristics. These genders are not usually associated with biological distinctions, but rather with the grammar of the language. In languages with grammatical gender, each noun is assigned to a specific gender category, which is often indicated by agreement with other elements in sentences, such as adjectives and verbs.

Grammatical gender influences language structure and communication significantly. It goes beyond simple categorization to influence a language's entire grammatical system. The gender of a noun influences agreement patterns, word endings, and even the form of associated adjectives.  Grammatical gender has broader implications for sentence construction, concord, and meaning interpretation (Corbett, 1991).

Importance of Comparative Gender Analysis

Gender system comparison across languages is a powerful tool for gaining linguistic, cultural, and cognitive understanding. Language reflects cultural values and societal norms, and the gender system is frequently inextricably linked to these cultural aspects. Linguists can gain a better understanding of how different societies conceptualise gender roles and relationships by comparing gender systems. Furthermore, cross-linguistic comparisons contribute to a broader understanding of language typology and the range of possibilities for expressing gender-related concepts that languages have (Boroditsky, 2006).

Beyond linguistics, comparative gender analysis is important. It reveals how societies structure and perceive the world around them. Gender distinctions, for example, can shed light on the social importance placed on gender roles in certain languages. Furthermore, comparative analysis reveals the cognitive impact of grammatical gender on the perceptions and thoughts of speakers. Studies on grammatical gender and object associations suggest that languages with gender distinctions can influence speakers' perceptions of objects (Boroditsky et al., 2003).

In essence, comparing gender systems allows us to investigate the complex interplay of language, culture, and cognition. We discover linguistic universals as well as the distinctive features that make each language unique by investigating gender categories, their evolution, and their impact on linguistic and cognitive processes.

3. Gender in Hindi

Gender Categories and Assignment

Hindi, an Indo-Aryan language, has a grammatical gender system similar to that of many other Indo-European languages. In Hindi, nouns are generally divided into two gender categories: masculine (पुल्लिंग) and feminine (स्त्रीलिंग). Unlike some languages that have three or more genders, Hindi has a binary gender system. Each noun is assigned to one of these genders, which is not always predictable based on the inherent properties of the object. While biological gender influences some nouns' gender assignment (for example, people and animals), others are assigned based on phonological, morphological, or historical factors (Corbett, 1991).

All nouns in Hindi fall into one of two grammatical categories known as genders. They have masculine (पुल्लिंग) and feminine (स्त्री लिंग) characteristics. Nouns frequently modify other words in a sentence based on their gender. All biologically female living beings are classified as feminine, while all biologically male living beings are classified as masculine. Gender is mostly defined by usage for names of inanimate objects, abstract, collective, and material nouns, for example:

Noun Gender Meaning

लड़का (ladka) Masculine Boy

लड़की (ladki) Feminine Girl

कुत्ता (kutta) Masculine Dog

बिल्ली (billi) Feminine Cat

The words which are followed by suffixes like a, tva, aa, aava, pa, pan, na etc (अ, तव, आ, आव, पा, पन, न आदि.) are masculine. Like मन, तन, वन, शेर, राम, कृष्ण, सतीत्व, देवत्व, मोटापा, चढ़ाव, बुढ़ापा, लडकपन, बचपन, लेन-देन etc. The names of mountains, Country, metals, some constellations, Months, days, liquids, tree, sea, time, grain, alphabets, collective noun, flower etc are masculine.

 

Noun Inflection and Gender Agreement

In Hindi, gender agreement refers to the agreement of nouns, adjectives, and verbs based on the gender of the subject noun. Nouns are inflected to indicate gender by changing their endings and, in some cases, the stem. Adjectives, on the other hand, take on different forms depending on the gender and number of the noun they modify. Verbs show gender and number agreement with the subject as well. For example, masculine and feminine subjects have different verb forms (Tiwari, 2017).

Gender of adjectives and verbs follow and agree with gender of noun in Hindi. For example, the pronoun "he" is masculine, the pronoun "she" is feminine, and the adjective "good" is masculine. Like 1. अच्छी “लड़की” जा रही है।  - Achchhi “ladki” jaa rahi hai (Good girl is going) 2. अच्छा “लड़का” जा रहा है।  - achchha “ladka” jaa raha hai  (Good boy is going). Here in first sentence in hindi “ladki” (लड़की - Girl) is feminine therefore adjective achchha (good - अच्छा) is becoming achchhi; and Verb jaa raha (जा रहा – going) is becoming jaa rahi (जा रही – going). Similarly in second sentence adjective and verb are changing according to noun “ladka” (लड़का- boy). In gender is retained even in plural forms like 3. अच्छी लड़कियाँ जा रही हैं। - “achchhi ladkiyan jaa rahi hain” and 4. अच्छे लड़के जा रहे हैं। - “achchhe ladke jaa rahe hain” Here in the sentences 3 and 4 subject (Noun): लड़कियाँ  (ladkiyan) and लड़के (ladke) are in plural form and therefore these nouns are modifying adjective and verbs accordingly. Adjectives and verbs are becoming feminine and masculine in plural form.

 

The gender agreement system in Hindi is challenging, with suffixes and alterations signalling the gender of the noun and dictating the forms of associated words. This system improves sentence grammatical coherence and ensures consistent agreement across elements.

Semantic Considerations

The gender system in Hindi goes beyond grammar, influencing noun semantic associations and cultural connotations. Gender labels nouns frequently reflects societal perceptions and cultural characteristics. Nouns associated with strength or power, for example, are typically masculine, whereas those associated with beauty or nurturing roles are typically feminine. This phenomenon reflects the complex interaction of linguistic structures and societal norms.

Furthermore, the use of gender specific nouns can have cultural and ideological consequences. Certain professions, roles, and characteristics are traditionally associated with specific genders, which can serve to maintain gender stereotypes. Understanding the gender specific connotations of Hindi nouns provides insights into the cultural landscape and attitudes toward gender roles, as languages reflect and shape cultural norms (Saxena, 2014).

4. Gender in Russian

Gender Categories and Classification

Russian, a Slavic language, employs a more intricate gender system compared to Hindi. It features three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Unlike Hindi, where gender assignment mostly relates to phonological or historical factors, Russian gender assignment is often tied to the phonetic endings of nouns. For instance, many masculine nouns end in consonant letter or -й, feminine nouns end in -а or -я, and neuter nouns end in -о, -e, or -ё. While biological gender plays a role for animate beings, inanimate objects are also assigned gender based on these endings (Corbett, 1991).

In general, Russian nouns are classified as masculine, feminine, or neuter, but there is no compelling reason for this distinction. If a noun refers to a person or an animal, the grammatical gender is more or less (though not always consistently) tied to the meaning of the word: male nouns are typically grammatically masculine, while female nouns are typically grammatically feminine (Wade, 2005; инокуp, 1971; Morfill, 1889).

In general, neutral nouns are used to describe inanimate objects and abstract concepts. These are words дитя 'child', животное 'animal', cущество 'creature', божество 'divinity', ничтожество 'nonentity' (about a person) etc. are of neuter gender. However, the majority of inanimate nouns are either masculine or feminine (Wade, 2005; Винокур, 1971; Morfill, 1889). Grammatical genders of these nouns are unclear and conditional in relation to their meanings. Only their formal endings and syntactical components separate inanimate nouns into masculine and feminine categories.

Noun mostly becomes the head word and modify the gender of noun-describing words like: possessive adjective (Pronoun), demonstrative adjective (pronoun), ordinal numeral, participle and adjectives etc, they always take the endings of the qualified noun. For example: мой талантливый друг (Moi talantlivii drug). Here noun друг (drug) is of masculine gender that’s why possessive pronoun “мой (moi)” and adjective “талантливый (talantlivii)” is taking the ending of masculine gender. In another example like: моя талантливая подруга (moya talantlivya podruga), here мой талантливый (moi talantlivii) is changing into моя талантливая (moya talantlivya) since noun “подруга” (podruga) which they qualify is of feminine gender.

1. Мой талантливый “друг” “читает” книгу. (Moi talantlivii “drug” “chitayet” knigu.)

2. Моя талантливая “подруга” “читает” книгу. (Moya talantlivaya “podruga” “chitayet” knigu.)

3. Мои талантливые “друзья” “читают” книгу. (Moi talantlivie “druzya” chitayut knigu.)

4. Мои талантливые “подпруги” “читают” книгу. (Moi talantlivie “podprugi” “chitayut” knigu)

Here noun “друг” (“drug”) and “подруга” (“podruga”) are masculine and feminine respectively, they are taking 3rd person singular verb, that is “читает” (“chitayet”), there is no gender identity. In third sentience noun “друзья” (“druzya”) and “подпруги” (“podprugi”) are plural “друг” (“drug”) and “подруга” (“podruga”) respectively; they take verb: “читают” “chitayut” which is not having any gender identity.

Verb in present tense and future tense do not have gender identity whereas Past form of verbs in Russian language have gender and change according to gender. Nouns keep their gender intact in their plural form but unlike Hindi verbs lack the gender identity in plural form of verbs in Russian.

1. Мой талантливый “друг” “читал” книгу. (Moi talantlivii “drug” “chital” knigu.)

2. Моя талантливая “подруга” “читала” книгу. (Moya talantlivaya “podruga” “chitala” knigu.)

3. Мои талантливые “друзья” “читали” книгу. (Moi talantlivie “druzya” “chitali” knigu.)

4. Мои талантливые “подпруги” “читали” книгу. (Moi talantlivie “podprugi” “chitali” knigu.)

Here noun “друг” “drug” is taking verb “читал” (“chital”) which is of masculine gender due to gender of “друг” “drug” that is of masculine gender and “подруга” “podruga” is taking “читала” “chitala” due to gender of “подруга” “podruga” which is feminine. Nouns: “друзья” (“druzya”) and “подпруги” (“podprugi”) is having verb “читали” (“chitali”) which is plural in form without any gender identity.

Gender Agreement and Noun Forms

Gender agreement in Russian is similar to that in Hindi, but it includes a third gender, neuter. Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns must agree in gender, number, and case in Russian. Adjectives and pronouns take on different forms depending on the gender and number of the noun that they modify. Russian nouns also have different endings to indicate gender. For example, masculine and neuter nouns may have different accusative case endings, reflecting gender differences (Isachenko, 1965).

Gender agreement patterns in Russian contribute to sentence grammatical coherence and facilitate precision in expressing relationships between nouns and their modifiers.

Cultural and Historical Influences

Cultural, historical, and linguistic factors all have an impact on the evolution of the Russian gender system. Grammatical genders do not always reflect biological distinctions; instead, they frequently emerge from historical linguistic developments. Russia's rich history and interactions with neighbouring languages have added to the complexity of its gender system. The influence of Old Church Slavonic, for example, can be seen in the gender roles of certain nouns. Furthermore, Russian contact with languages such as Turkish and Finnish has resulted in the incorporation of loanwords with different gender assignments, adding to the language's gender diversity (Comrie, 1983).

Furthermore, cultural associations and societal norms are embedded in the Russian gender system. Gender labels inanimate objects and concepts can have cultural implications and reflect how society views the attributes and roles associated with those objects. Understanding the cultural and historical influences on the gender system can help you better understand Russian identity and societal values.

5. Comparative Analysis

Similarities and Differences

A comparison of the gender systems in Hindi and Russian reveals both similarities and differences. While gender systems are used in both languages to categorise nouns, their implementation and underlying principles differ. Gender assignment based on phonological characteristics is shared by Hindi and Russian. However, the Russian language's three-way gender division (masculine, feminine, and neuter) differs from the Hindi language's binary gender division (masculine and feminine) (Corbett, 1991). Because of this distinction, the two languages have different patterns of gender agreement and noun inflection.

Gender Assignment Strategies

Gender assignment strategies differ in Hindi and Russian as well. Although not always predictable, Hindi gender assignment often follows a set of phonological, historical, and even biological rules. Russian, on the other hand, assigns gender primarily through phonetic endings. While both languages have gender assignment flexibility for loanwords and borrowed terms, the phonological basis in Russian and the diverse factors in Hindi highlight their distinct gender assignment strategies.

Cross-linguistic Implications

The findings of this comparative analysis have broader implications for a variety of linguistic and interdisciplinary domains. This investigation benefits linguistic typology by deepening our understanding of how gender systems are constructed and the variation that exists across languages. Furthermore, cognitive linguistics learns how different gender systems influence speakers' perceptions of the world. Boroditsky (2006) and Boroditsky et al. (2003) studies highlight the cognitive effects of gender systems on speakers' object categorization and associations.

Furthermore, gender systems have cultural implications that go beyond grammar. Gender assignment and usage reflect cultural norms, attitudes, and values regarding gender roles. Comparing gender systems provides insight into both languages' cultural landscapes. Gender associations and connotations serve as a lens for understanding how societies conceptualise and communicate about gender.

6. Sociocultural Considerations

Gender systems in Hindi and Russian are not only linguistic constructs, but also reflections of cultural perceptions and values concerning gender roles. Gender assignment to nouns is not random; it frequently reflects societal notions of what is considered masculine or feminine. Gender assignment of nouns in Hindi can reveal cultural associations with characteristics such as strength, beauty, or nurturing roles (Saxena, 2014). Similarly, the gender of inanimate objects in Russian can reflect cultural attitudes toward these objects and their roles in society.

Languages encapsulate cultural norms through the gender system, and these norms are reinforced through linguistic usage. Gender specific language reflects and reinforces cultural norms and stereotypes. Gender systems research allows us to learn more about how language and culture interact and shape one another.

Within Hindi and Russian-speaking communities, gender-based language can influence social interactions and power dynamics. Language is a powerful communication tool that shapes how people perceive and interact with the world. Gender specific associations in language can help to reinforce traditional gender roles and hierarchies.

In both languages, certain professions, roles, and attributes are stereotypically associated with specific genders. For instance, certain words for occupations may carry gendered connotations that align with historical roles. This can influence how individuals perceive their own capabilities and aspirations. Moreover, it can impact how society views the inclusion and participation of individuals in different fields.

7. Conclusion

We conducted a thorough comparative analysis of the grammatical gender systems in Hindi and Russian in this study. Our research revealed fascinating insights into how these languages classify nouns, assign gender, and use gender agreement patterns. While both Hindi and Russian use grammatical gender to convey information about objects, their strategies and peculiarities are significantly different.

The study of grammatical gender in Hindi and Russian provides important cultural and linguistic insights. Gender systems, with their assignment strategies and associated connotations, provide a lens through which we can view each language community's cultural values and societal norms. Furthermore, this study emphasises the dynamic interrelationships between language and culture, emphasising how language not only reflects but also shapes cultural perceptions and gender relations.

Beyond the cultural implications, the linguistic implications are significant. This study emphasises the significance of cross-linguistic analysis in revealing the variety of ways that languages can express gender and other related concepts. Gender systems in Hindi and Russian are examples of how languages construct and convey meaning in a variety of ways. By investigating grammatical gender systems, we improve our understanding of linguistic typology and broaden our linguistic knowledge.

While this study shed light on key aspects of Hindi and Russian gender systems, numerous avenues for future research remain unexplored. Future research could delve deeper into the historical and diachronic aspects of gender systems, charting their evolution over time. Furthermore, broadening the comparative analysis to include languages from other language families could provide a more complete understanding of cross-linguistic variation in gender systems.

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